Haleem, Muhammad Abdel (2005). Understanding the Qur'an: themes and style. I.B. Tauris. p.82. ISBN 978-1-86064-650-8. Luling, Gunter (2003). A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8. Brown, Norman O (Winter 1983–1984). "The Apocalypse of Islam". Social Text. Duke University Press. 3 (8): 155–71. doi: 10.2307/466329. JSTOR 466329. Izutsu, Toshihiko (6 June 2007) [2002]. Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an (Repr.ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. p.184. ISBN 978-0-7735-2427-9.

Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. [143] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer. [ citation needed] Peters, Francis E. (August 1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (3): 291–315. doi: 10.1017/S0020743800056312. S2CID 162433825. Günther, Sebastian (2002). "Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis". Journal of Quranic Studies. 4 (1): 1–26. doi: 10.3366/jqs.2002.4.1.1. Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation ( tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant 'to return' or 'the returning place'. In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to. [134] [135] Shia Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding lecterns ( rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. [160] [161] According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line. [162]Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy . Retrieved 3 October 2019. According to Christoph Luxenberg (in The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language. [194] The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books ( Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature ( Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. [195] Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament. [196] Arab writing

The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in 1911. [150] Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire. I.B. Tauris. pp.134–36. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.The Arabic pronunciation can be transcribed phonemically as /al.qurˈʔaːn/. The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [ o] to [ ʊ], while the second vowel varies from [ æ] to [ a] to [ ɑ]. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn]. According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge ( tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him." An objective analysis of the Muslim belief regarding the Divine origin of the Qur’an, in light of established scientific discoveries. a b c d e f g Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt) (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'an. Univ. Press. pp.31–51. ISBN 978-0-85224-171-4.