Mileti D (1999) Disasters by design: a reassessment of natural hazards in the United States. Joseph Henry Press Koetz T, Farrell KN, Bridgewater P (2012) Building better science-policy interfaces for international environmental governance: assessing potential within the intergovernmental platform for biodiversity and ecosystem services. Int Environ Agreements: Politics Law Econ 12(1):1–21 Small changes in the shape of a volcano such as bulging may indicate that magma is rising. Accurately measuring the summit and slopes of a volcano is one of the most important tools used for forecasting an eruption. Temperature changes in surface lakes or the groundwater near a volcano also can be a valuable early detection tool, although not all large changes in temperatur During the March eruption of Alaska's Pavlof volcano, Van Eaton and her colleagues used the World Wide Lightning Location network to monitor the volcano's ash cloud, she said. The ash from Pavlof and other southwest Alaska volcanoes can drift into international and local flight paths.

The USGS established four key ‘standard’ requirements for VALS, which were to “(1) accommodate various sizes, styles, and duration of volcanic activity; (2) work equally well during escalating and de-escalating activity; (3) be equally useful to both those on the ground and those aviation; and (4) retain and improve effective existing alert notification protocol” (Gardner and Guffanti 2006, p. 1). Notably, three of these requirements are directly concerned not with scientific information as such but rather with function—the effectiveness and usability of the VALS as a communication tool. Ongoing standardisation processes were driven by a combination of factors: internationally by the adoption of the internationally used ICAO aviation colour code; nationally by the social context of the post-9/11 USA, which shaped the broader emergency management policy; at state level by the requirement to have consistent VALS and alert level terminology to prevent confusion; and internally within the USGS, to provide a more consistent and clear message. These standardisation processes are discussed in more depth in Fearnley et al. ( 2012). Because the lava flows easily, it can move down gradual slopes over great distances from the volcanic vents. The lava flows are slow enough for humans to outrun or outwalk them. This type of magma ranges in temperature between 1000 °C and 1200 °C and is called basaltic magma.

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Newhall C (1999) Professional conduct of scientists during volcanic crises. Bull Volcanol 60(5):323–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00008908 Nowotny H (2005) The increase of complexity and its reduction: emergent interfaces between the natural sciences, humanities and social sciences. Theory, Culture Soc 22(5):15–31 +269 Madden J, Murray TL, Carle WJ, Cirillo MA, Furgione LK, Trimpert MT, and Hartig L (2008) Alaska interagency operating plan for volcanic ash episodes, p 52 The research that Cash et al. ( 2003) built on had already established that coordinated efforts of the kind invoked by Papale ( 2017) necessarily occur at the hybrid, dynamic interface between scientific and other communities, where the strategic demarcation of scientific and other tasks involves inevitable crossover (Guston 2001; Jasanoff 2011a, b; Parker and Crona 2012; Drimie and Quinlan 2011). In this article, we start from this understanding; it is not possible to restrict scientists to science when they are communicating scientific information across the boundary that divides science and non-science knowledge domains, and neither is it best practice.

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Lava is so hot it can burn everything in its path. If you used a glass thermometer to take the temperature it would melt! 11.The world’s largest active volcano is Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

Peterson DW, Tilling RI, Kilburn CRJ, Luongo G (1993) Interactions between sceintists, civil authorities and the public at hazardous volcanoes. In: Active Lavas. UCL Press, London, pp 339–365 Understanding how volcanoes work and how their eruptions can be predicted is essential for the well-being and preservation of people who inhabit volcanically vulnerable areas. Eruptions can occur without any preceding signals, making them extremely difficult to predict. However, sometimes there are useful clues for judging when a volcano is likely to erupt.Friman M, Strandberg G (2014) Historical responsibility for climate change: science and the science–policy interface. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang 5(3):297–316 In addition, contingent institutional factors need consideration as they are shaped by local cultural, political and judicial systems. The dynamics of USGS policy, governance and operations had a profound effect on the resources required to provide an effective VALS, such as funding for monitoring capabilities, staff resources and protocols for issuing warnings. Education and outreach were essential activities to ensure that stakeholders are aware of VALS and how they work, but these required significant staff time and resources. In addition, each user group will also have their specific institutional and legal remits, factors and limitations to consider. Inevitably these factors, along with securitisation, influence how communities will respond to a warning. Hill DP, Dzurisin D, Ellsworth WL, Endo ET, Galloway DL, Gerlach TM, Johnston MJS, Langbein J, McGee K, Miller CD, Oppenheimer D, and Sorey ML (2002) Response plan for volcano hazards in the Long Valley Caldera and Mono Craters region, California. In U.S. Geological Survey bulletin 2185. Menlo Park, Calif, Denver, Colo.: U.S. Dept of the Interior http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/bulletin/b2185/ Casadevall TJ (1994) The 1989–1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: impacts on aircraft operations. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 62(1–4):301–316 These volcanoes erupt so explosively that little material builds up near the vent. Eruptions partly or entirely empty the underlying magma chamber which leaves the region around the vent unsupported, causing it to sink or collapse under its own weight. The resulting basin-shaped depression is roughly circular and is usually several kilometres or more in diameter. The lava erupted from caldera volcanoes is very viscous and generally the coolest with temperatures ranging from 650 °C to 800 °C and is called rhyolitic magma. Although caldera volcanoes are rare, they are the most dangerous. Volcanic hazards from this type of eruption include widespread ash fall, large pyroclastic density currents (avalanches of tephra) and tsunami from caldera collapse.