Borowsky IW, Hogan M, Ireland M (1997). "Adolescent sexual aggression: risk and protective factors". Pediatrics. 100 (6): E7. doi: 10.1542/peds.100.6.e7. PMID 9382908. a b Kanin, E.J. (1994). "An alarming national trend: False rape allegations". Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol.23, no.1.

a b c "Victim Responses to Sexual Assault: Counterintuitive or Simply Adaptive". www.ncjrs.gov . Retrieved 2017-09-09. The rate of reporting, prosecuting and convicting for rape varies between jurisdictions. Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during 2008 ranged, per 100,000 people, from 0.2 in Azerbaijan to 92.9 in Botswana with 6.3 in Lithuania as the median. [4] Worldwide, sexual violence, including rape, is primarily committed by males against females. [5] Rape by strangers is usually less common than rape by people the victim knows, and male-on-male and female-on-female prison rapes are common and may be the least reported forms of rape. [6] [7] [8] a b c d e Violence Against Women (PDF). U.S. Department of Justice – Office of Violence Against Women. April 2013 . Retrieved 10 January 2016. In the weeks following the rape, the survivor may develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress syndrome and may develop a wide array of psychosomatic complaints. [72] [78] :310 PTSD symptoms include re-experiencing of the rape, avoiding things associated with the rape, numbness, and increased anxiety and startle response. [72] The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is higher if the rapist confined or restrained the person, if the person being raped believed the rapist would kill them, the person who was raped was very young or very old, and if the rapist was someone they knew. [72] The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is also higher if people around the survivor ignore (or are ignorant of) the rape or blame the rape survivor. [72] Xue J, Fang G, Huang H, Cui N, Rhodes KV, Gelles R. Rape myths and the cross-cultural adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2016 5. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1177/0886260516651315Rape culture is when, in 31 states, rapists can legally sue for child custody if the rape results in pregnancy. Bracha, H. Stefan (September 2004). "Freeze, Flight, Fight, Fright, Faint: Adaptationist Perspectives on the Acute Stress Response Spectrum" (PDF). CNS Spectrums. 9 (9): 679–685. doi: 10.1017/S1092852900001954. ISSN 2165-6509. PMID 15337864. S2CID 8430710. a b Development of Global Prohibition Regimes: Pillage and Rape in War – Tuba Inal . Retrieved 2013-06-15. a b Kimura, Seiji (2013). Physical and emotional abuse triggers, short and long-term consequences and prevention methods. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 9781624174469. Dalton, Maureen (2014-10-09). Forensic Gynaecology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107064294.

Donita, D'Amico (2015-02-10). Health & physical assessment in nursing. Barbarito, Colleen (3rded.). Boston. p.664. ISBN 9780133876406. OCLC 894626609. {{ cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link)

Yeater EA, O'Donohue W (November 1999). "Sexual assault prevention programs: current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women". Clin Psychol Rev. 19 (7): 739–71. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.404.3130. doi: 10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00075-0. PMID 10520434.

The WHO states that the principal factors that lead to the perpetration of sexual violence against women, including rape, are: [49] Those who have been raped have relatively more reproductive tract infections than those who have not been raped. [84] HIV can be transmitted through rape. Acquiring AIDS through rape puts people at increased risk for psychological problems. Acquiring HIV through rape may lead to behaviors that create a risk of injecting drugs. [85] Acquiring sexually transmitted infections increases the risk of acquiring HIV. [84] Another effect of rape and sexual assault is the stress created in those who study rape or counsel the survivors. This is called vicarious traumatization. [80] Physical Health organizations and agencies have also expanded rape beyond traditional definitions. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines rape as a form of sexual assault, [24] while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) includes rape in their definition of sexual assault; they term rape a form of sexual violence. The CDC lists other acts of coercive, non-consensual sexual activity that may or may not include rape, including drug-facilitated sexual assault, acts in which a victim is made to penetrate a perpetrator or someone else, intoxication where the victim is unable to consent (due to incapacitation or being unconscious), non-physically forced penetration which occurs after a person is pressured verbally (by intimidation or misuse of authority to force to consent), or completed or attempted forced penetration of a victim via unwanted physical force (including using a weapon or threatening to use a weapon). [25] [26] The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) has implemented universal screening for what has been termed "military sexual trauma" ( MST) and provides medical and mental health services free of charge to enrolled veterans who report MST (Title 38 United States Code 1720D; Public Law 108–422). a b Corinne J. Saunders, Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England, Boydell & Brewer, 2001, p. 20.a b Long, Jennifer (2016). "Introducing expert testimony to explain victim behavior in sexual and domestic violence prosecutions" (PDF). NDAA.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-29. What is a Victim Advocate-". victimsofcrime.org. Archived from the original on 2018-09-24 . Retrieved 2017-09-09.