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Palastanga, Nigel; Soames, Roger (2012). Anatomy and Human Movement: Structure and Function (6thed.). Elsevier. ISBN 9780702040535. Richmond, Brian G; Fleagle, John G; Kappelman, John; Swisher, Carl C (1998). "First Hominoid From the Miocene of Ethiopia and the Evolution of the Catarrhine Elbow" (PDF). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 105 (3): 257–77. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199803)105:3<257::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 9545073. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17. Biceps brachii is the main elbow flexor but, as a biarticular muscle, also plays important secondary roles as a stabiliser at the shoulder and as a supinator. It originates on the scapula with two tendons: That of the long head on the supraglenoid tubercle just above the shoulder joint and that of the short head on the coracoid process at the top of the scapula. Its main insertion is at the radial tuberosity on the radius. Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a non-translatory (rotation-only) humeroulnar joint, and a more robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch. [44] Steel, F; Tomlinson, J (1958). "The 'carrying angle' in man". Journal of Anatomy. 92 (2): 315–7. PMC 1249704. PMID 13525245.

Soames, Roger (2018). "2 - Upper limb". Anatomy and Human Movement E-Book: Structure and function (7ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. p.102. ISBN 978-0-702-07259-8. There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and there is no one consensus for which methods are best. Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication. [38] Cubital tunnel syndrome [ edit ]Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°. As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency. In full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is "rolled up" on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency. Because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder. [10] Lee, YJ; Han, D; Koh, YH; Zo, JH; Kim, SH; Kim, DK; Lee, JS; Moon, HJ; Kim, JS; Chun, EJ; Youn, BJ; Lee, CH; Kim, SS (February 2008). "Adult sail sign: radiographic and computed tomographic features". Acta Radiologica. 49 (1): 37–40. doi: 10.1080/02841850701675677. PMID 18210313. S2CID 2031763. It's not always easy to avoid getting tennis elbow, for instance if it was caused by something you do at work. Not putting too much stress on the muscles surrounding your elbow will help prevent the condition from getting worse. A small accessory muscle, so called epitrochleoanconeus muscle, may be found on the medial aspect of the elbow running from the medial epicondyle to the olecranon. [13] Extension [ edit ]

Golfer's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common. It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing. It can also be caused by trauma. Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow. [36] It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of sensation, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers.

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Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as "the elbow"). Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch. [33] If the GP thinks the pain is due to nerve damage, further tests, such as an ultrasound scan or an MRI scan, may be done. Treating tennis elbow There are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle— the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes). The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand. The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes. [14] [15] Nerve supply [ edit ] The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus. [14] Development [ edit ] A crescent-shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus. [8]

In any position of flexion or extension, the radius, carrying the hand with it, can be rotated in it. This movement includes pronation and supination. Earwaker J (1992). "Posttraumatic calcification of the annular ligament of the radius". Skeletal Radiol. 21 (3): 149–54. doi: 10.1007/BF00242127. PMID 1604339. S2CID 43615869. If you have tennis elbow, you might be able to refer yourself directly to services for help with your condition without seeing a GP.Brachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly. During rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow. [11] Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known as ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed. This can often happen where the ulnar nerve is most superficial, at the elbow. The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the area known as the "funny bone". Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and pressure at this area, or from a trauma. It can also occur due to bone deformities, and oftentimes from sports. [39] Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain.

As the name suggests, tennis elbow is sometimes caused by playing tennis, but any activity that puts repeated stress on the elbow joint can cause it. Drapeau, MS (July 2008). "Articular morphology of the proximal ulna in extant and fossil hominoids and hominins". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (1): 86–102. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.01.005. PMID 18472143. The name for the elbow in Latin is cubitus, and so the word cubital is used in some elbow-related terms, as in cubital nodes for example. Yilmaz, E; Karakurt, L; Belhan, O; Bulut, M; Serin, E; Avci, M (2005). "Variation of carrying angle with age, sex, and special reference to side". Orthopedics. 28 (11): 1360–3. doi: 10.3928/0147-7447-20051101-16. PMID 16295195.The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the non-dominant limb of both sexes, [24] suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the carrying angle. Developmental, [25] aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter. Gossage, James; Bultitude, Matthew; Corbett, Steven; Burnand, Katherine; Lahiri, Rajiv (2021). Browse's Introduction to the Symptoms & Signs of Surgical Disease (6ed.). CRC Press. p.29. doi: 10.1201/9780429447891. ISBN 978-0-429-44789-1.